# Thymosin Alpha-1 References: Cited Sources & DOIs

> Thymosin Alpha-1 references — the full cited source list with PubMed links and DOIs for every quantitative claim on the site, from the 1977 sequence paper to the 2025 TESTS trial.

Every figure on the site, logged to its study. Sortable, with DOIs and PubMed links.

## How to read this list

Each entry below corresponds to a numbered citation used across the site. Where available, both a DOI and a PubMed link are given so any claim can be traced to its source. The list spans the founding 1977 sequence paper, the mechanistic dendritic-cell and IDO work, the ETASS and null TESTS sepsis trials, the hepatitis B combination meta-analyses, the COVID-19 cohorts and ex vivo studies, and the cancer-adjuvant literature.

## References

[1] Goldstein AL, Low TL, McAdoo M, et al. Thymosin alpha1: isolation and sequence analysis of an immunologically active thymic polypeptide. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1977;74(2):725-729. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/265536/
[2] Wu J, Zhou L, Liu J, et al. The efficacy of thymosin alpha 1 for severe sepsis (ETASS): a multicenter, single-blind, randomized and controlled trial. Crit Care. 2013;17(1):R8. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23327199/
[3] Wu J, Pei F, Zhou L, et al. The efficacy and safety of thymosin alpha1 for sepsis (TESTS): multicentre, double blinded, randomised, placebo controlled, phase 3 trial. BMJ. 2025;388:e082583. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39814420/
[4] Dominari A, Hathaway III D, Pandav K, et al. Thymosin alpha 1: A comprehensive review of the literature. World J Virol. 2020;9(5):67-78. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33362999/
[5] Romani L, Bistoni F, Montagnoli C, et al. Thymosin alpha1 activates dendritic cell tryptophan catabolism and establishes a regulatory environment for balance of inflammation and tolerance. Blood. 2006;108(7):2265-2274. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16741252/
[6] Liu Y, Pan Y, Hu Z, et al. Thymosin Alpha 1 Reduces the Mortality of Severe Coronavirus Disease 2019 by Restoration of Lymphocytopenia and Reversion of Exhausted T Cells. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;71(16):2150-2157. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32442287/
[7] Matteucci C, Minutolo A, Balestrieri E, et al. Thymosin Alpha 1 Mitigates Cytokine Storm in Blood Cells From Coronavirus Disease 2019 Patients. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2021;8(1):ofaa588. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33506065/
[8] Tao N, Xu X, Ying Y, Hu S, Sun Q, Lv G, Gao J. Thymosin alpha1 and Its Role in Viral Infectious Diseases: The Mechanism and Clinical Application. Molecules. 2023;28(8):3539. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37110771/
[9] Yang YF, Zhao W, Zhong YD, et al. Treatment with lamivudine versus lamivudine and thymosin alpha-1 for e antigen-positive chronic hepatitis B patients: a meta-analysis. Virol J. 2009;6:63. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19467157/
[10] Htet NH, Naing C, Vongpunsawad S, Win TT, Poovorawan Y. Thymosin-alpha-1 for people with chronic hepatitis B (systematic review). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2022. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8929401/
[11] Ricci D, Etna MP, Severa M, et al. Novel evidence of Thymosin α1 immunomodulatory properties in SARS-CoV-2 infection: Effect on innate inflammatory response in a peripheral blood mononuclear cell-based in vitro model. Int Immunopharmacol. 2023;117:109996. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36933449/
[12] Liang J, Cui R, Wang C, et al. Thymosin alpha-1 blocks the accumulation of myeloid suppressor cells in NSCLC by inhibiting VEGF production. Biomed Pharmacother. 2020;131:110740. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32942159/
[13] Garaci E, Pica F, Rasi G, Favalli C. Thymosin alpha 1 in the treatment of cancer: from basic research to clinical application. Int J Immunopharmacol. 2000;22(12):1067-1076. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11137613/
[14] Costantini C, Bellet MM, Pariano M, et al. A Reappraisal of Thymosin Alpha1 in Cancer Therapy. Front Oncol. 2019;9:873. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31555601/
[15] Badamchian M, Goldstein AL, Sztein MB. Immune and neuroendocrine modulation with thymosins: current status of recent clinical trials in the United States. Int J Neurosci. 1990;51(3-4):365-367. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2279903/
[16] Pica F, Chimenti MS, Gaziano R, Buè C, Casalinuovo IA, Triggianese P, et al. Serum thymosin alpha1 levels in patients with chronic inflammatory autoimmune diseases. Clin Exp Immunol. 2016;186(1):39-45. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27350088/
[17] Dinetz E, Lee E. Comprehensive Review of the Safety and Efficacy of Thymosin Alpha 1 in Human Clinical Trials. Altern Ther Health Med. 2024. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38308608/

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A mechanism-first reading of the Thymosin Alpha-1 literature — each finding resolved to its own study like a band on a blot, the null sepsis trial kept in plain view; no clinic behind the bench, and nothing here dosed, prescribed, or sold.